Introduction

Technology has the power to centralise and reinforce authoritarian power, disenfranchise workers from their jobs and further marginalise disadvantaged groups. Conversely, it could support a post-industrial information age where co-operation and creativity are increased and enhanced.

Phrases such as ‘the information rich’ and ‘the information poor’ have become tired, old cliches; yet their relevance has increased rather than diminished with time. In recent times a convergence of global computer networks and international communication systems has meant instant access to the most recent information. Of course, the power of this technology comes at a cost. Recent surveys in the US found that 60% of Internet users had annual incomes which ranged from $46 000 - $100 000, whereas people with incomes below $33 000 made up 11% of the Internet community (O’Reilly & Associates cited in Courier Mail, 1995). Bigum (1995) reported that Australian students using the Internet combined with computer resources has led to students gaining advantages in their presentation of assignment work and the development of their knowledge. He cites a case of one of his colleague’s daughters delaying the writing of an assignment on Russia despite collecting plenty of relevant information through the Internet because the information would change considerably before the due date. Access to global networks not only give advantages but may ultimately produce, "a radically different world and with it radically altered institutions" (Bigum 1995, p4). Access, however is only one issue to be faced by educators concerned with students affected by poverty.

In the past, equitable use of technology was only seen in the light of ‘equal access’ rather than as a need to take positive action to eliminate barriers to successful outcomes. Van Horn (1995, p5) strongly argues that skill in learning technology is imperative to empowerment in modern society and that, "As we get deeper into the information age, knowledge becomes power, and people who don’t know how to access and use the information will have no power." This could be a frightening prospect to groups affected by poverty if access, types of computer use, expert teaching and encouragement in this field becomes very dependent on the wealth of the learners.

In examining the question ‘Can equity and technology become partners?’, we need to determine :-

What we mean by poverty;

Can learning technology be useful to children affected by poverty?

What inequities exist which pose barriers to technological access?

What are the qualities of successful SPSS programs

This main objective of this study is to identify and outline the elements of successful programs identified in the Wide Bay area. The first three questions will be examined in the literature review and the last one will be the basis for the case study reports.

Inspection of SPSS grants and submissions over the last five years shows that many teachers and administrators appear to believe that the use of technology can help overcome the inequities faced by children affected by poverty. This review examines the issues surrounding technology as it applies to schools affected by poverty and also presents some case studies perceived as being successful by schools and their local communities. Learning technology focuses on the use of computers and associated devices and how they are used to enhance subjects across the curriculum. Their use may not necessarily follow the ‘design, make and appraise’ steps of technology in the broader sense. It is towards this area that funding has mainly been directed. The case studies and issues discussed primarily relate to the area of learning technology rather than technology in the broader sense.

In the 1980's an unrealistic euphoria often accompanied discussions on the use of computers in classrooms. " All we have do is place a computer and a child in the same room and wonderful things will happen," wrote Maddux (1988) when describing computers as a type of educational magic wand (1993, p8, cited in Okolo, Bahr and Rieth). Experience and research studies in the 90's have dispelled the myths that were generated by the promotion of unrealistic expectations. One of these studies (Chambers and Clarke, 1987) examined the computing skills and attitudes of disadvantaged groups before and after major influxes of computer hardware. Data collected demonstrated a drop in computer skills accompanied by a deterioration of attitudes to computers among those disadvantaged students that the grants were targetting. While advantaged groups within the school benefited, target groups did not . Similar results were documented from research studies conducted in the USA, Canada, Great Britain and New Zealand by Sutton (1991). The reason for including these negative findings early in this review is to illustrate that schools and teachers cannot afford to take a compensatory approach and plan on the basis that merely providing resources will overcome problems of inequity.

Key Issues

This review will attempt to establish that new technology is so significant that we are at a critical point in time where the structure of society and school will be radically changed. Evidence of this exists in new developments such as Springfield on the outskirts of Brisbane. In this area 18 000 homes are being planned and built to include computers with broadband, fibre optic communication links and a pre-established ‘Community Net’. Multi-national communication providers, computer companies and developers have combined to plan the community to be heavily involved in the use of technology. Imagine the impact on the neighbourhood school! As educators we need to critically reflect on how these issues will impact on students affected by poverty and develop strategies to ensure that issues of equity are not forgotten in the inevitable movement towards greater dependence on technology. A recurrent theme in this review will be that simply providing technology resources alone is not the answer and that the issue is much more complex than that. Studies cited previously show that this type of deficit thinking may lead to unnecessary expenditure of funds and negative outcomes for target groups.

Poverty and Technology - From What Perspective?

In order to effectively examine the relationship between poverty and learning technology, we need to gain a shared understanding of what is meant by poverty and what value technology has to children affected by adverse socio-economic circumstances. Poverty is more than a lack of money. A task force set up by the Schools Commission (cited in Connel & White, 1991) identified five dimensions to poverty. These included :-

Inadequate family or community income;

Vulnerability to the changes in the labour market and economic dependence;

Lack of organisational power and being excluded from collective resources;

Damaging social and physical environments;

Cultural marginalisation.

Dealing with poverty demands a close examination of organisational structures which may serve to further disadvantage some children and advantage others. Connell (1993) claims that the total ‘social investment’ in the education of economically advantaged children far outweighs the effect of any compensatory funds directed to poor children. In order to maximise the effect of funds directed to learning technology, we need to ensure that benefit is gained by target groups and that whole school change is encouraged.

Are Technology Skills Valuable?

Affluent parents have shown by their increasing expenditure on home computers that they see value in providing their children with this equipment. The emergence of private businesses specialising in computer tuition for children is also significant. This trend is reflected in the press with such statements as, " Twenty years ago caring parents bought their children encyclopaedias but today they are more likely to invest in a personal computer and a CD-ROM ..... this means that tertiary students of the future will be very computer literate when they begin university " (Courier Mail 5/9/95). The article continues with statements from Professor Whitlock of Griffith University pointing out that universities are changing in accordance with this by altering their library services and subject delivery to suit students with increased ability in the area of information technology. Another article from a feature on the new Sunshine Coast University stated that, " Information technology has had a considerable impact on how people study at universities, in terms of how students gain access to information, attend classes on campus and study via distance education from regional centres or remote areas " (Sunday Mail, 27/8/95). This illustrates how access to computer skills will have an impact on the ability of students from low SES backgrounds to adapt to life in tertiary institutions.

Two dimensions of poverty listed previously have a great bearing on the relevance of technology to family economic circumstances. These concern the aspects of vulnerability to changes in the labour market and being excluded from the collective resources of society. Increased use of technology has led to displacement of workers and an increase in the vulnerability of the unskilled labour force. Computer technology, according to Apple’s (1987) examination of statistics, has eliminated many more jobs than it has created thus contributing to the problem of inequities in society. Apple did not foresee the emergence of the new home office phenomenon where many displaced workers have begun using computer technology combined with fax machines and modems to compete with more traditional delivery of goods and services. Apple favours the view that students leaving school will face a workplace where technology has centralised power amongst a few and automated many out of any chance to contribute. More recent arguments claim the opposite. Wirth (1993, p.362) argues that,

"New types of skills and knowledge that depend on the understanding and manipulation of information are needed to tap the potential of an intelligent technology. As the workforce is given access to data from an information rich environment, hierarchical distinctions begin to blur. Managers and workers fashion new roles that permit them to invent creative ways to add value to products and services."

Whether or not the workplace is more competitive and hostile to those from disadvantaged groups due to the proliferation of technology will not alter the fact that skills and understanding in this area will increase students’ chances of gaining employment. Ultimately this will affect their ability to gain power. Australian Bureau of Statistics data reveal a high percentage of skilled recent migrants have gained entry to Australia through the priority employment scheme because they were computing professionals. The rate of preference given to people with skills in this area has increased dramatically since 1986 and the government has indicated that this acceleration will increase. The fact that computing professionals and telecommunication engineers were placed on top of the preference list highlights the need for these skills in our society (Data cited by McNamara, 1990). Not all students will undertake careers in computing but the chances are that their use will be expected in almost any field of employment.

Apart from employment opportunities in the future, learning technology offers disadvantaged students a means to improve and enhance their learning and access to information. On the other hand, poorly designed activities can lead to negative effects and increased anxiety (Campbell, 1989). Using computers effectively in the context of poverty means ensuring that educational programs do not reinforce disadvantage by offering interesting and challenging activities only to the high achievers and ‘drill and practice’ type activities to other groups (Becker & Sterling, 1987). It also means monitoring the use of the equipment to determine that target groups have a high level of access. Wirth (1993) estimates that 85-90% of learning technology activities have been the ‘drill and practice’ type. Sutton (1991) used national American data to illustrate that students from low socioeconomic groups often participate in activities where the computer controlled the situation, compared to advantaged students who more often took control of the computer.

Higher level cognitive tasks can be offered through involving the students in relevant, cross-curricula tasks in which the students can take various roles and use technology to assist in gathering and presenting information. These activities should involve some degree of problem solving and reflection on the aspects of the tasks and the product. The guidelines contained in the National Technology Profile include a main strand which emphasises the ‘Design, Make and Appraise’ model. Engaging students in programs which include these three elements would ensure that the students have opportunities to undertake higher level cognitive tasks. Learning technology also allows these tasks to include simulations where ideas can be tested within the school without the need for expensive materials and laboratories. Simulations can also show the effects of experiments over a long period of time.

Another area of great value for students is the ability to access information from locally based CD-ROMs or from international databases via modem and on-line services. This is of particular value for students facing the cumulative disadvantages of poverty and living in remote areas. Connection costs have been major hurdle to rural schools who face not only

hardware and software costs but service provider and S.T.D. charges. These charges are however reducing due to competition between providers and special deals for schools being offered by communication providers and the formation of ‘Open Net’ through Education Network Australia. As the database information can be presented in a variety of ways due to multimedia technology, students’ learning styles can be better catered for with a mix of text, sounds, videos and images. The Curriculum Corporation in a recent book outlining policy for multimedia courseware argue that materials developed using this format can place the learner in control of the learning process and focus on specific learning outcomes such as those listed in the National Technology Profile.

Evidence from a multitude of research studies shows that technology can significantly contribute to the education of disadvantaged children. (Healy & Masterpasqua, 1992; Means & Knapp, 1991; Howie, 1985; Gerber, 1994 ) Alternatively studies show that providing resources alone without effective educational plans to ensure participation of target groups can harm the educational and social outcomes of students affected by poverty. (Sutton 1991, Chambers & Clarke, 1987 ) It is also important to include effective means for monitoring whether or not the desired student outcomes have been achieved.

What Types of Inequities Exist?

Perhaps the most obvious form of disadvantage is the lack of learning technology resources in schools affected by poverty compared to wealthy schools. Schools showing great socio-economic disadvantage have access to special funding such as SPSS or other DSP programs while others greatly affected by poverty do not. A study conducted by Atweh, Hickling-Hudson and Preston (1990) compared and contrasted wealthy and poor Brisbane schools according to their use of computers. The rich private schools were found to expend between $300 000 and $500 000 in their initial outlays on computers and peripherals and follow this up with annual budgets of between $60 000 and $70 000 for upgrades, repairs and software. More recently, some private schools have made the purchase of a laptop computer a pre-requisite for enrolment. This reduces the school’s burden of purchasing hardware and means that the huge budgets can be used to enhance connectivity between the school and home and the home and international on-line services. More money can also be spent on software, training of staff and other devices such as laser printers, scanners, digital cameras etc. In contrast the poorer ones surveyed included large secondary schools (in excess of 1000 students) that only had the use of thirty computers or less for the whole school population and expended around $500 per year for all maintenance and software costs. Even though this study is recent, significant changes have occurred since that time to try to provide state schools with a more equitable provision of technology resources. It is unlikely that the state budget could allow state schools to attain the level of physical resources evident in some of the wealthy private schools. Primary schools in Australia suffer further disadvantage by being funded at a much lower rate per student than secondary schools. This level of disadvantage is so chronic that Australia ranks at the bottom of all OECD countries in terms of the percentage of gross income spent on primary education. ‘We would need to allocate an extra $2 billion a year just to bring us up to the OECD average and to achieve parity between primary and secondary education’ (Marginson,p.18, 1995). Similarly in the US national data shows that schools serving older students receive a disproportionate amount of funding and are staffed by teachers more knowledgeable in computer use (Becker & Sterling, 1987).

Private schools often showcase their technology programs to promote the notion that they are providing a relevant and up to date curriculum and use this prominently in their advertising campaigns. One school in its media campaign quoted a report from Paul Keating’s office which stated that there was a need, " for educational institutions to keep pace with the latest technological developments - a need met by only a handful of schools in Australia" The promotion included a description of the school’s optical fibre network which linked the 1000 laptop computers with CD-ROM, laser printers and access to the Internet. The principal believed that the students were taught how to think rather than what to think and that, "As part of the philosophy to teach students to respond to the challenges of a changing environment throughout their lives, information technology has been embraced as fully as possible." The school makes claims to undertaking a national leadership role in modelling the use of technology across the whole curriculum. Another school in its advertising outlines the use of sophisticated computer equipment and systems which enable their students to study and model the Earth’s surface, climate and vegetation and population as part of their geography classes. They argued that "with this form of technology the students will move into industry with confidence and expertise" (Sunday Mail, Education Annual, 1995). This emphasis on learning technology is typical of many promotions for private school education and illustrates the value that technology is perceived to have to this group of mainly well educated and paid professionals. Placing a high value on learning technology is translated into the provision of physical resources in these schools at a much higher level than is possible in state schools.

The availability of computing resources in the home also has an impact on the success of programs at school. Chambers and Clarke (1987) found a positive correlation between school computing success and access to voluntary non-class computing activities. Children without access to home computers were found to participate less in school computing activities. This research concentrated on how economic disadvantage impacted on school computing success. Anxiety levels experienced by students using computer technology in schools are positively correlated to lack of computer equipment in the home. This increase in anxiety appears to lead to decreased outcomes for students and to be detrimental to building up positive attitudes to computer use (Campbell, 1989). This problem is recognised in the Qld Education Department’s ‘Guidelines for the use of computers in learning, 1995, p.28’ which warns teachers to, "take care that economically impoverished circumstances do not diminish the computer experiences of students. Access to school computers out of school hours may

be important." Research studies strongly suggest that access to computers in the home is a very significant factor (Sutton,1991).

Students may be influenced in their acceptance or non-acceptance of computer technology by images portrayed in the media and magazines. White middle class males have often featured in advertisements promoting computer technology. If stereotyped images continue to appear in the media outside of school then the new technology will simply serve to reinforce traditional roles and expectations. Kenway (1995) noted that the Internet shows some worrying trends in replicating and reinforcing existing stereotypes.

One important curriculum feature associated with technology is the development in students of a socially critical perspective. This is the area where students are encouraged to explore the directions that technology is leading society and the choices that which will need to be made. Sachs (1993,p.33) considers that three important questions need to be examined by students :-

‘In whose interests does computerisation and increased technology serve?

Are any groups in society disadvantaged by the use of computers and technology?

What are the social consequences of technology?’

Research conducted in Brisbane comparing wealthy private schools to poor state schools revealed that only one school included using computers as part of a socially critical curriculum and that was one of the wealthy private schools (Hicking-Hudson, 1995). Ryan (cited in Hickling-Hudson,p.7) expressed the view that the lack of time devoted to this aspect of technology education was dangerous as students from poorer schools would be "less able to question the contemporary restructuring of their socio-economic roles" and that "managers of the future" from elite schools will be "denied opportunities to develop insights into the social aspects of their responsibilities..." This argument, however, seems to be biased in assuming that children from the wealthy schools will be the managers and those from the poor schools will take on more menial roles. Socially critical aspects of the curriculum should be aimed at breaking down expectations such as these.

Another curriculum area where inequities can be reinforced is the systematic provision of ‘drill and practice’ activities to disadvantaged students as opposed to more challenging tasks to other groups. Perhaps the overuse of these programs can be attributed to a lack of teacher training and in-service in the area of technology. King and Wilson (1995) argue that, "While the supply and upgrading of hardware in Queensland is being partially overcome by government schemes ... the upgrading of teachers’ knowledge and skills in information technology has lagged behind." Hickling - Hudson (1992) documented the great disparity between the rich private schools in Brisbane and the poor schools in terms of academic technology qualifications of their technology coordinators. Recent developments which prevent in-service for teachers in school time have added to the lack of opportunities for most teachers to improve their skills or develop effective networks and support groups.

Inequities can exist in:-

Level of training given to technology coordinators;

Level of in-service provided to teachers;

Equipment resources in the school;

Access to school equipment;

The stereotypes evident to students;

The types of activities given to different groups;

Level of exposure to a socially critical technology curriculum;

The level of home access to computers.

Method

Case study schools were selected on the basis of perceived success through feedback to the regional SPSS reference. This information came from reference group members, teachers, principals and community members. As this group represents all stakeholders including parents; teachers; educational advisers; administrators and special interest groups, it was an valid means of choosing schools, particularly when this group carefully reviews all program plans before allocating funding and also receives written feedback on program development. Triangulation of the reference group opinions was provided by telephone conversations with school principals, program managers and visits to the schools. Case study schools indicated their willingness to participate in the process and suitable times to visit the schools were arranged so that the program could be viewed in operation. The process followed clearly defined steps :-

Interview questions were designed to reveal information about instigation of the program, home ownership of computers, attitudes to computers, attitudes to the program, involvement in the program, effects of the program;

Interviews with the principal, parents, teachers, students and community members were recorded in note form;

Examination of school records, school programs, school SPSS submissions, and regional SPSS records provided triangulation of the interview data;

A structure was developed to effectively categorise data :- description of the program, objectives, strategies and issues for stakeholders;

Examination of data to determine a connection between the programs and issues raised by the literature.

Bundaberg West State School

Program 1

Studies of Society and Environment

History of the School

School Objectives

To develop an awareness of other cultures in the development of the school's history;

To develop a sense of pride in the community and a sense of belonging;

To develop an understanding and appreciation of cultural differences;

To develop an understanding that cultural values change over time;

To appreciate and value the contribution that older people have made to the community and that these people are a valuable resource as source material for historical information;

To make use of the learning technology resources of the school to produce databases, publication and multimedia presentations;

To develop and extend communication skills;

To develop writing and presentation skills.

Overview of the program

This program was instigated by the school teacher/librarian and involved documenting the oral history of the school through the collection of interview data and artefacts. Senior citizens in the area provided recollections of what life was like in the school in past years. Interviews targeted specific areas of school life such as discipline, travelling to school, the school tuckshop/lunch box contents, experiences of people from other cultures, past teachers and principals and any other specific area that students and teachers found interesting and relevant.

The program coordinator, Byron Pershouse argued that technology offered a chance to record data in a way that traditional methods could not. Multimedia technology was used to present an integrated presentation of video, digital photography and computer enhanced text presentations. Future generations of students at the school will be able to gain a better idea of the people providing the interview data by viewing video sections of the interview.

The task of investigating and documenting the history of the school through interviews and collection of artefacts provides a relevant focus for the integration of learning technology with many other curriculum areas. In collecting the samples from interviews of community members, specific attention was given to the necessity for the sample to include representatives of different cultural groups. These data will provide the basis for the development of a traditional publication outlining the history of school as well as the multimedia presentation which will include a brief video of the person being interviewed, photos of the person and relevant artefacts and enhanced text.

The program will also be linked to the nutrition theme by the production of a recipe book and recipe database detailing a variety of preparation methods used by different cultural groups. As a focus activity, the school arranged for an aboriginal group to prepare food by traditional methods for the children to eat for lunch. This led to discussions on the different methods of preparation and food types indicative of various cultures and a greater appreciation and understanding of aboriginal culture. Capturing of images for publications and multimedia displays are enhanced by the use of a video camera, video capture card and a Quicktake digital camera. These images provide a focus for further discussion at a later date.

Strategies

As the ‘Quicktake’ camera and video capture card are new technologies in the school, smaller projects have been conducted to introduce the children to the equipment and its use. A mystery photo display has been created by various classes. This involved taking photos with the ‘Quicktake’ camera and using them to produce a slideshow in 'Clarisworks'. Included in this was the addition of clues as to where the photos were taken. Other groups were assigned the task of trying to find the locations documented in the presentations. Some enterprising groups included a representation of the school in map form with colour coding to show the function of the various buildings.

Another activity was the production of licences when students successfully completed classroom tasks. The licences included colour photographs of the students from digital 'Quicktake' images. Picture books in slideshow form were produced and stored on the library computer. These picture book slideshows included short videos of students as well as digitised photos, attractive borders, colours and fill patterns. Activities such as these formed the basis of prior experience in the skills with technology needed for the major project.

Students have been involved in devising, typing and saving structured interview sheets after discussions about the type of questions which would lead to the collection of valuable data. A database of people suitable to offer information about different phases of the school's history is being compiled by the students.

As a preliminary activity students are using the computers to construct and print flow charts showing major events in the history of the school. These flow charts will help the students gain a historical perspective of the school's development and will lead to a better understanding of the sequence of events that they will be investigating.

Students and teachers have realised that advertising for community people to participate in the program is a necessity in order to gain as much data as possible and to include a wide range of cultural groups. Computer technology has been used to create newsletter items for publication in the school newsletter and local newspapers and posters for the school and for community noticeboards. Using computers for the production of text and the inclusion of appropriate graphics is a continuation of the skills gained by students in previous units of work. Models were also presented to the students in the form of traditional publications such as , "Changing times - School as Seen by Four Generations" by R. Thompson (1994).

Summary of Learning Technology Activities

Preparation of newsletter and newspaper items;

Preparation and printing of posters;

Design, production and printing of historical flowcharts;

Taking digital photographs with the Quicktake camera;

Storing and manipulation of digital photographs on the computer;

Using digitised photographs in presentations;

Designing and producing databases on community resource people and artefacts;

Using the video camera to produce images suitable for multimedia presentations;

Transferring; manipulating; storing and editing video images on the computer.

Issues for Stakeholders

Interviews with students revealed a very positive attitude towards the project. A common response of students was that they were looking forward to continuing the work as it would increase their understanding of the past and they valued a more informed view of what has preceded them. One noticeable feature was the low rate of home ownership of computers with less than 25% of students reporting home ownership. Some students reported a desire to increase the amount of computer technology in the school so that access to the required tools for the project could be increased. Almost without exception the students expressed positive attitudes to the learning technology tools used and felt that they had contributed to success of the project and that they particularly enjoyed working with computer technology.

Training in the use of new technology was an important issue for teachers. New equipment such as digital cameras and video capture cards in computers capable of capturing live video represented exciting opportunities but also new techniques and skills to learn. Time was not available for specific in-service in this area so the Teacher - Librarian (Byron) tried to overcome this problem by taking groups to complete tasks and training children who often become peer tutors and also show their teachers the multimedia slide shows and how they are created. The teacher/librarian/computer coordinator has no formal training in computing but has learnt through job experience and home use. Lack of time for in-service in a rapidly changing field means that new technology may often be ignored without the input of at least one staff member willing to act as a facilitator in modelling the use of new technology.

.

Program 2

Nutrition Program

School Objectives

To increase awareness in the total school community of the value of good food and nutrition;

To develop a good knowledge base concerning nutrition and healthy diets;

To encourage children to eat healthy foods during school hours and after school hours;

To improve the food offered in the school tuckshop;

To provide opportunities for practical, relevant use of the school's learning technology equipment.

Overview of the Program

This program seeks to raise the awareness of good nutrition throughout the whole school community. A qualified nutritionalist has been employed to help develop, implement and coordinate the program. In the first year the community’s knowledge of nutrition was increased through workshops for parents, students and teachers. The current phase is to use the knowledge to facilitate whole school change such as:- the types of lunches eaten by students, the food offered in the tuckshop and changes to nutritional offerings at home.

Strategies

Nutrition has been adopted as a school wide theme with different components in various grades integrated in the total school curriculum. Workshops were provided on sound eating habits and healthy food for parents in sessions before and after school, for teachers during staff meetings and for children during class time. Learning technology is now being used to reinforce the knowledge previously gained and to foster positive attitudes. This has been in the form of nutrition quizs and competitions. Desktop publishing facilities have been used to produce the quiz and competition sheets and many children have used the computer facilities to prepare their entries for the various competitions. These have included the publication of recipe books and posters focussing on various health issues related to food. These posters have also been used to promote healthy new additions to the school's tuckshop.

Another use of learning technology involves the publication of two 'Nutrition Newsletters'. One is aimed at the students and the other at parents and include thoughts and new information from the school nutritionalist and items of interest eg. 'sports nutrition' from students and community members. Database technology is being used for recipe lists and to record and evaluate the data recorded from a recent extensive survey into the eating habits of the student population. It is hoped that this data will be analysed using the statistical features of database and spreadsheet.

Summary of Learning Technology Activities

Desktop publishing to produce posters;

Desktop publishing to produce nutrition newsletters;

Creating food databases;

Using food databases.

Issues for Stakeholders

Students expressed enthusiasm for learning about food and what constitutes a healthy diet. Most children expressed the view that they still enjoyed snack and fast foods but had modified their diet to decrease the amount of unhealthy foods and increase the amount of healthy foods. One student reported that he did not want to see the school become some sort of ‘health farm’ but could see the benefits of modifying the tuckshop menu. Students could easily demonstrate their knowledge of the role that technology had played in the development of the theme. Students appreciated using technology for relevant tasks such as enhancing their competition entries.

SPSS funds allowed for the employment of a nutritionalist who arranged for in-service afternoons for staff and day sessions for parents. This meant that the program included all stakeholders in the school rather than just targeting the students. One difficulty reported by the nutritionalist was the resistance to change when it came to reviewing the tuckshop menu. This was partly overcome by the nutritionalist becoming part of the tuckshop committee and slowly working at changing attitudes. The use of data base information, poster and newsletter creation all assisted in the long term process of changing attitudes in the whole school community.

Relationship of Program 1 and 2 to the Literature

One theme expressed constantly in the literature is the need for training in the area of technology. This particularly applies to teachers who are restricted to in-service only after school hours due to current policy. In the case of these two programs the technology section is successful mainly because of the expertise of one person. Bigum (1995, p.2) claims that, ‘the one thing that schools, school systems and government initiatives have consistently neglected in the promotion of computers in schools is adequate support and professional development for teachers."

The program co-ordinator reported that finding the time to show teachers how to use new equipment and software was a genuine problem which detracted from the success of the program.

On-line services would be particularly useful for researching current knowledge on healthy eating and to examine the food preferences of other countries. Through this medium the school could publish and communicate the successful outcomes of the program to a wide audience. Barriers to this happening are cost (especially in rural areas) and lack of teacher training. The emergence of government initiatives such as Education Network Australia will improve access to remote networks. Their charter is to ensure that students, "of all ages across Australia will be able to access the network at affordable rates, regardless of their socioeconomic status or geographic location" (DEET Newsletter, Issue 6).

Many of the activities completed by students in these programs are not the drill and practice type activities which are often

assigned to students from low socio-

economic backgrounds (Wirth,1993 & Sutton,1991)

Including activities which were interesting to students and involved a higher level of cognitive skills proved to be a factor in the success of the programs.

Reports in the literature (Chambers and Clarke, 1987 & Campbell, 1989) that home ownership of computers was a significant factor in student participation and attitudes were found to be pertinent. Observation and interviews revealed that the most enthusiastic students and often those taking leadership roles were those students familiar with home computers.

A concern expressed in the literature (Connell, Ashenden, Kessler & Dowsett, 1982) that students from low SES backgrounds face lower expectations is a reason for programs such as these. Special, innovative programs sometimes create situations where expectations are higher. In both of these programs opportunities existed for students to become more highly motivated and to participate at a higher level than might be normally expected.

Tin Can Bay State School

Options Program

Objectives of the School

To help children better understand the importance of literacy and numeracy skills in common day to day activities;

To show children that there is a relationship between success in school work and future participation in the workforce;

To provide opportunities for children to use their literacy and numeracy skills in practical and functional ways;

To teach the children a range of practical life and vocational skills.

Overview of the Program

This program involved offering the students from Year Five to Seven a choice of options consisting of computing, construction, cooking, mechanics, drama and dance. Each student made a choice of an initial activity by completing an enrolment form which outlined the student information, preferences and conditions. Students then worked with either a teacher or a paid community person who had expertise in the particular area. Female students were encouraged to join in activities which have been traditionally fairly gender specific such as construction, mechanics and computing.

Parents were also asked to complete medical details and give their permission for children to participate in the program. After a six week timespan with one Friday afternoon per week devoted to the activities, students would submit their next preference and enrolment forms. Activities could be deleted or added depending on student interests and needs. This review will mainly focus on the computer group although most activities fit within the broader definition of technology. Each option program was specifically designed to include practical applications of literacy and numeracy skills as well as skills specific to the activity. For example the group involved with mechanics gained hands on experience stripping and assembling engines as well as using engine manuals and diagrams.

Strategies

Activities for the computer group involved an introduction to word processing, database, spreadsheet and paint and draw software. These applications were seen as being relevant and worthwhile to the students’ needs as well as linking with the types of applications utilised in the workforce. Rather than delivering these programs in a drill and practice format which may have seemed boring and irrelevant to students, they were presented as a means of assisting all the other groups. They also assisted with the management of the program.

The students were able to see that technology could have an important role in the program’s success. Word processing as well as database and spreadsheet documents could be produced by the group. Useful items for group production were seen as being :- information sheets for parents, enrolment forms, rolls for all groups, spreadsheets to list and calculate costs for all groups, a database of enrolments, preferences and final selection of groups and a newsletter where students could reflect on their experiences in the options group as a means of sharing ideas within the student population as well as reporting to parents. All of these activities were ‘real’ applications of computer technology rather than ‘mock’ or simulated activities, so the students felt that they were engaged in useful activities which had obvious relevance. Sachs (1993, p33 ) argues that, "in school programs all too often the experiences and voices of students are neglected. In particular a split is made between life on the inside and life outside schools. Lundgren (1987) refers to this as the split between two cultures of pedagogy, one in the schools and one of commerce and entertainment." Experiences become more powerful in the educational sense when activities are life-like and mirror experience in the outside world. The school principal commented that the children at the school often do not see a connection between work completed in the school and relevance to life outside the school and that the options program would be continued, "in an effort to make the curriculum more relevant to these children and to provide them with a range of practical skills which will better equip them for day to day life."

One student (Aaron) commented in his ‘reflection notes’ that, "the best thing I did last week was the spreadsheet. I enjoyed this the most because we got to finish it." This reveals that not only do students enjoy relevant activities but they also appreciate being able to finish a task. Often in classrooms with few computer resources, students rotate through a timetable and often need to vacate the computer before a given task is completed. This is followed by a long wait to resume the activity which often is partly forgotten by the time the student again reaches the correct timetable cycle.

‘Microsoft Works’ was used on seven desktop Macintosh computers and one laptop combined with an inkjet printer as the means of providing appropriate hardware and software. The school believes in a ‘computers in the classroom’ model rather than a ‘computer room’ although in this instance some computers were moved from other classrooms on a temporary basis to boost the available hardware for the program. The first group to be involved in the computer option successfully completed a database of enrolments and a spreadsheet containing mathematical formula and were at the stage of experimenting with paint and draw software. They were also planning the newsletter from the various option groups which would be their last activity.

Summary of Learning Technology Activities

Creation and use of a database to show the student enrolment in each group;

Creation and use of a spreadsheet to calculate each group’s expenditure;

Desktop publishing of a newsletter as a report on the options program to parents;

Word processing of letters to parents;

Creation and use of a database to show student preferences.

Issues for Stakeholders

These activities enable all students to undertake options and work through them in a small group under the supervision of an adult who demonstrated an interest and knowledge in the particular area. Supervisors of groups were mindful of the program aims to ensure practical relevance of activities and to encourage full participation by all groups.

The principal, Mr Peter Baker, planned to review the success of the different options with the supervisors and to hold planning sessions for them where effective strategies and critical reflections could be shared. Students were given input into the process by discussion with the adults, writing their ‘reflection notes’ and reporting to the parents in the newsletter.

Community members being involved as supervisors was a strength of the program as often community expertise is overlooked by schools. Using community members in this way encourages further community involvement and shows by example that the skills and knowledge which exists in the local community are valued. At the same time the program aims to change some community expectations of low achievement and traditional gender roles associated with a fishing community and the perception that skills gained at school are not relevant or useful in the world outside school.

By creating an options program it was hoped that students would develop a greater interest in school as a place that met their needs and provided skills necessary for later life.

Many students expressed an opinion that computers would be important in their life after leaving school. After working on the activities the entire computer options group were extremely positive in their views on the value of computers. Students in other groups such as the hydroponics/carpentry group told me that the computer group was their first preference and that they hoped to be able to do it next time.

Interviews with students revealed a lower than average rate of home ownership of computers and peripheral devices. The fact that computers rated very highly in students’ preferences against options such as line dancing, golf and drama shows the level of enthusiasm that students have for computer technology as a medium to assist learning.

Relationship to the Literature

A primary concern to the instigators of this program was that students in this community did not see a link between school and life outside of school. It was noted that students often felt that school life was irrelevant and success at school would have little bearing on life when school was completed. These sentiments are echoed in arguments by Sachs (1993), Lundren (1987) and Wirth (1993)

who point out that educational experiences

are often more powerful and meaningful

when associated with experiences offered by commerce, industry or entertainment. Options in the program are designed to replicate these types of experiences. Through the options different computer, literacy and numeracy skills could be integrated in a way that students would see as worthwhile. Success in these activities could have an effect on the students’ willingness to participate in other school activities.

Sutton (1991) reviewed research studies showing that gender has been an important issue in how technology has been used or not used. Steps were taken in the lead up to option selection to encourage girls to participate in the technology group, the engine repair group and the carpentry group. Interviews with female students and observation of the groups revealed that the girls were active and enthusiastic participants in roles which were once regarded as fairly gender specific. Kenway (1995) also speculates that the construction of gender within the Internet will need to be noted and reflected upon. She wonders whether the inequalities which still exist will be restated, reinforced or changed in cyberspace. For many rural schools affected by poverty, particularly those not receiving special funding, the construction of gender on the information superhighway will be a moot point.

Monkland State School

Higher Cognitive Challenges Through Desktop Publishing Program

School Objectives

To develop communication skills;

To develop peer tutoring and social skills;

To improve computer skills;

To enhance self-concept;

To improve written composition skills;

To reduce anxiety associated with using computers and communicating with peers.

Overview of the Program

This program originated as a response to an individual child's needs. This child faced multiple disadvantages of being affected by low socio-economic circumstances and a mild-moderate intellectual disability. Soon the program steps will be implemented with a group of children with similar needs to the original student as well as being trialed in another school.

Students are introduced to the computer by participating in non-threatening 'game' type activities. After this they are gradually introduced to non-textual features of desktop publishing such as the use of borders to express an idea. Text is then introduced gradually to complement the theme of the presentation. When text is introduced features such as variation in font size and type are used to make the use of text more interesting and attractive. The initial work is designed to take the emphasis off text as many of the participants have developed a fear of writing while using conventional tools. When text is introduced it is tied into the overall theme and kept to a minimum. After each stage of the program the children are involved in peer tutoring of other members of the class. Scaffolding is given to the participants to help with their peer tutoring skills. Themes for presentations are taken from the regular class program or from the children's interests. As the children develop in confidence with the use of text, more is introduced. Before text is used to any great extent the children experiment with using colours, shading and sounds in their work. One completed presentation about frogs contained an appropriate border, frog graphic, heading and frog sounds.

The extra time spent on the program with the original participant led to her being regarded as a genuine expert in that area of work. This meant that she was sought out by other members of the class for help and advice. As a result of this her communication, peer tutoring skills and self-perception increased. In the next stage of the program, it is hoped that these outcomes will be replicated with the new group of students.

Strategies

The key strategies used are:-

Introductory activities (including out of school time) which are non-threatening and designed to reduce computer anxiety;

Allowing and encouraging the children to choose themes which are relevant and useful;

Teaching desk-top publishing skills to present an idea with the minimum use of text;

Involving the participants in peer tutoring to pass on skills to regular class members;

Increasing the amount of text used as confidence increases;

Outcomes of this program will be closely monitored as part of a research study employing quantitative and qualitative techniques.

Summary of learning technology activities

Participating in introductory sessions using educational games and puzzles;

Development of desktop publishing skills to produce a combination of components to representing an idea;

Using multimedia tools to record and insert sounds in documents.

Issues for Stakeholders / Relationship to Literature

Chambers & Clarke (1987) investigated whether students with multiple disadvantages faced a cumulative effect. They reported that the effect was cumulative and that these students typically had less in-school and out of school computer experience, had lower scores on knowledge tests and had less positive attitudes towards computing. They also had the lowest level of home ownership of computers. This program is aimed at assisting these students to achieve better outcomes and to develop closer working relationships with other students.

Children with special needs are often not challenged by activities fostering higher level cognitive development. Research studies have often indicated that a ‘drill and practice’ implementation of technology has often occurred in special education

(Gerber ,1994). These mundane activities associated with technology and students with special needs have been firmly grounded in behaviourist doctrine. An overuse of these drill and practice techniques has been noted and critiqued by researchers who claim that children with intellectual disabilities fail to reach their potential unless they are challenged by higher level cognitive tasks. (Gerber; Reid and Stone 1991; Means and Knapp 1991) This failure to challenge children may also be replicated in the home. Vygotsky (Cited in Reid and Stone,1991, p17) when discussing the cognitive development of children that he described as 'atypical' concluded that, "mothers were less likely to engage in sustained and challenging interactions with their children in a task context than were mothers of children who were developing normally."

Research on cognitive development supports the idea that higher level tasks are necessary to the intellectual development of individuals (Davidson and Sternberg, 1993) . Other studies point out that this is an area often neglected in the education of children with special needs (Means and Knapp, 1991; Gartner, 1986; Bronicki and Guess, 1987; Gerber, 1994).

Teachers using technology have argued that the mere exposure of children to computers will help achieve the goal of providing children with challenging tasks.

Authors such as O' Brien (1983) in "Wasting New Technology on the Same Old Curriculum" and Gerber (1994) in "Beyond Drill and Practice: Using the Computer for Creative Decision Making" show by their choice of titles and articles, an understanding that computers can be used in a way to reinforce traditional 'drill and practice' modes of instruction or that more useful techniques can be employed to ensure that children do gain opportunities to participate in higher order tasks.

The aim of this study is to investigate whether or not children with moderate intellectual disabilities can learn to use technology in ways that clearly require higher level thinking skills and can achieve a high standard in relation to their peers and other students. Other programs with similar aims have been conducted such as Gerber's (1994) use of computer painting programs for children with moderate intellectual disabilities and Stan Hayward's (1990) use of animation software for children with moderate intellectual disabilities but despite reporting success, no quantitative evidence is offered to show the level of success. Adjustment in the classroom and peer acceptance may be linked to the ability to progress with problem solving strategies. Research by Healy and Masterpasqua (1992) tracked the problem solving ability of 75 children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities and found evidence that children who were better adjusted in their classrooms offered a greater number of relevant solutions to problems. This variable was more persuasive than age or intelligence.

Howie (1985) introduced higher order tasks in the form of a music program to eight children with mild intellectual disabilities and reported a measurable increase in I.Q. compared to the control group who either maintained their score or declined. Lombardi and Savage (1992) concluded from their research that exposure to higher order tasks was a crucial factor in the development of life skills for children with intellectual disabilities.

Research programs in this field are often criticised for being technology driven. Lepper and Gurtner (1989,) argued strongly that a more beneficial strategy would be to develop a program based on sound theory and put this into practice rather than examining the effects on learning of a new piece of hardware or software. They contend that, " A first goal for future research on educational computing is an increased appreciation and reliance on theory. To date, a surprising majority of research has been technology driven" (p. 176). An example of this is research into the effect of ‘Logo’ on the academic achievement and thinking skills of students. ‘Logo’ is simply a programming language; ‘Microsoft Publisher’ is simply a software tool. It is not the effect of the software that we should be examining but rather the methods used in the classroom and the theory behind the program. Research into Logo has shown great variation in results from positive to neutral. This merely illustrates the variation in how the technology is put into practice.

This program is firmly grounded in social constructivist learning theory (Cobb, Yackel & Wood, 1992 ; Means & Knapp, 1991; Paris & Byrnes, 1992).

Means and Knapp's (1991) research supported the notion that opportunities should be presented to disadvantaged students to complete complex tasks. Yates and Chandler (1992) illustrated that negative feelings built up over time are extremely difficult to change as they become entrenched in the individual's schema. It is common that children with intellectual disabilities have negative feelings towards written communication which are often tied to problems with fine motor coordination. This program makes use of the desktop publishing software to enable this hurdle to be overcome. Written communication can be seen in a new light and not tied to previous negative feelings. Experimentation without the fear of consequences is an important factor in allowing for the development of positive and enjoyable feelings.

Lepper and Chabay 1985 (cited in Lepper and Gurner 1989) found with their research that children disadvantaged by socio-economic factors did not receive the same type of computer activities as other groups in the classroom. Even more often, children with intellectual disabilities or those affected by learning disabilities are effectively prevented from participation in more interesting and challenging activities. Research into the importance of higher order skills in the intellectual development of children with special needs is lacking as is quality research into the area of linking sound learning theory with the implementation of technology.

Imbil State School

Assisting Distance Education Students Program

School Objectives

To enable distance education students to access information easily;

To facilitate the effective presentation of distance education assignment work;

To provide access to computer based CD-ROM databases appropriate to the subjects being studied;

To plan for the development of greater skills in the use of computer equipment in order to support independent learning;

To encourage more use of technology in the home through use of laptops available for borrowing.

Overview of the Program

Six students at Imbil State School elected to participate in distance education subjects due to the relatively small range of subjects available at a high top (primary/secondary to Year 10). Distance education subjects currently undertaken by the students are :- German, geography, art and music. These students engage in phone lessons with a distance education teacher as well as some input by a visiting music teacher and a community volunteer in the area of German. The frequency of phone support varies from weekly in the case of music to several times a year in other subjects. A school co-ordinator provides some assistance to the students through reviewing their work, conducting discussions about problems individual children face in completing subjects via this mode and supervision of exams and tests. Contact with teachers is far less than if the students were studying regular time-tabled subjects.

This program is based around the idea that these students would benefit from increased access to computer technology and on-line services. In order to achieve this the students are given access to a dual operating system (Power Mac/PC) computer with CD-ROM and multimedia capabilities. The school is building up their range of software packages in areas not normally covered by their regular choice of subjects. Key technology teachers at the school are aware of the special needs associated with students following this course of study and recognise the importance of providing support in the development of technological skills. At present the school is investigating the services provided by Open Net in order to determine the usefulness of global on-line services to provide avenues for increasing the students ability to complete work in their subjects.

Strategies

Students are encouraged to make use of the school’s laptop computers to increase the use of this technology in the home;

Technology is used across all curriculum areas so that students become aware that technology is a useful tool in all subjects rather than just as a separate area of study;

Increased access to this group of students is provided through a specific area and computer being allocated for their use;

Students are provided with support in developing their use of the equipment.

Issues for Stakeholders

Students felt that one of the biggest disadvantages to studying through distance education was that contact with their teachers was minimal. This meant that when subject specific problems occurred , it was difficult to gain immediate advice and feedback. This problem may be assisted by services currently being developed by Education Network Australia to specifically break down geographical barriers to education. By using these services students will be able to receive quick replies through e-mail or electronic conferencing. These services will also assist in another problem pointed out by students who felt that there wasn’t an opportunity to converse with other students in similar circumstances. On- line conferencing could be used to form a virtual classroom where students could engage in dialogue with other students in different areas of the country.

Presentation of work was seen as an important consideration to both students and teachers. Students reported that they had received better marks for their work when it was produced on the computer and printed with the laser printer compared with when hand written reports were submitted. Teachers noted that this wasn’t just an issue of presentation. They felt that the students worked in a different manner when they used the computer as they were much more likely to edit their work several times and that they were more likely to experiment with different methods of presentation and layout.

The school initiative of supplying two laptops for home borrowing is in response to a very low percentage of home ownership. Students, teachers and parents were enthusiastic about the availability of this equipment although the constant demand has meant that students need to book equipment at least two weeks in advance.

The distance education assistance program is only in the initial stages of development and the school is waiting on software orders to be filled so that interactive CD-ROM databases can be used more effectively in each subject area. Current year 10 students recognise that the expansion of the program will be of great benefit to those students enrolling in distance education subjects next year but has come a bit late to assist them in the overall completion of their subjects. Quick provision of on-line services to these students has been frustrated in the past by the prohibitive cost. This is now being overcome by the school subscribing to ‘Open Net’ - the delivery service of Education Network Australia which has been commissioned by the federal government ‘to break down the economic, geographical and social barriers to learning - to place education at the fingertips of all Australians’. (from Open Net World Wide Web page) This service provides full Internet and World Wide Web access to all schools in Australia for the cost of a local call and $6.00 per hour to cover the provider costs. The Imbil school community will assess the outcomes of using the service to enhance this program and assist in other areas of curriculum delivery.

Summary of Learning Technology Activities

Word processing to complete assignment work;

Desktop publishing to enhance presentation;

Use of CD-ROM based databases

Use of interactive, multimedia tutorial programs;

Use of World Wide Web on-line services.

Relationship to the Literature

This program has similarities to the one at Monkland in that it seeks to address problems associated with multiple disadvantage, in this case socio-economic circumstances and rural isolation. Chambers and Clarke (1987) pointed out the cumulative effects of more than one disadvantage. Campbell’s (1989) research indicated that children in rural areas with low home ownership of computers faced greater computer anxiety, which in turn, had negative effects on overall computing success.

Raskind & Higgins (1995, p.429) critiqued programs that were ‘deficit’ driven where technology is simply supplied to students to make up for economic shortcomings or for some perceived dysfunction that needs to be corrected. They consider programs not to be of a ‘deficit’ nature when they are ‘helping someone foster his or her special talents’. Students with a special talent or interest in music, languages or any subject area need to be encouraged to pursue these interests and not be placed in a straight jacket determined by narrow curriculum offerings. This program is clearly aimed at developing students’ special interests and talents. Some of these students have arrived from other schools and have already developed skills in a particular subject area.

Introduction of these children to the technology needs to be supported by trained staff, particularly when rural children may have special needs in terms of increased computer anxiety.

Bigum (1995) voiced concern about the lack of teacher training and in-service support for teachers in the area of technology. These sentiments were echoed by some members of the school staff who felt that lack of time for teacher training and in-service was an important issue. As in most of the other schools reviewed, technology coordinators had no formal training in this field and relied on skills built up through having a personal interest in technology or through working in this area in previous schools.

Constructivist learning theories are very influential in Queensland schools. The widely used ‘Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning’ are clearly based on constructivist theory. Recent constructivist research emphasises the importance of socially constructed knowledge (Ridgeway and Passey, 1991). This is an important issue to students at the school who are the only ones enrolled in a particular subject. On-line services offer a chance for students such as these to develop shared understandings with peers in other parts of the country or even internationally. In the future these text based discussions with peers will evolve to video conferencing. At present there is a real gap in the opportunity that these students have to shape their constructs through active discussion and reflection with peers.

Conclusion

It was apparent in the case study sites that the emphasis was placed on the quality of programs used to support technology and that careful monitoring of outcomes was undertaken to ensure benefit to the target groups as well as the total school population. This factor has been recognised by many teachers and is evident in the literature reviewed. Two studies referred to in the introduction provide a warning that the outcomes for target groups can deteriorate as a result of ‘resource - based’ mentality and that merely providing resources without careful planning to ensure their effective use can result in unexpected negative outcomes (Chambers and Clarke, 1987 & Sutton, 1991). Elements of successful practice in the case study schools provide a model to assist other schools in developing successful programs.

One important feature evident in the case study schools was the presence of at least one staff member with an interest and competency in the use of computers. This competency was a result of formal academic training in the use of computers and/or the person spending many hours of their own time developing their skills. In order to ensure that whole school change occurs there needs to be a lot more time spent on teacher training and in-service. This would boost the number of teachers able to develop and implement programs which would enhance outcomes for groups of students with particular needs. Although this has been a recurrent theme in the literature and a concern to teachers, the use of funding is still often confined to hardware acquisition at the expense of training.

In each of the selected programs, learning technology was not used in isolation but was linked to other curriculum areas. It is important that the use of computers is not regarded as an isolated skill but as an integral part of all subjects across the curriculum. These activities also need to be challenging rather than being dominated by ‘drill and practice’ type exercises. Opportunities for higher level cognitive challenges must be deliberately built in to the tasks involving technology. Many of the programs allowed for flexibility so that new technology could be used in such a way that unexpected outcomes could develop from different types of interaction.

Community involvement was a feature of the case studies. This is important in forming stronger links between the home and school and to enable parents to gain experience and an appreciation of the value of computers when used as part of successful programs. This could lead to higher rates of home ownership or parents providing other means of increasing their children’s out of school access to computers such as using the equipment in community centres or libraries.

Successful programs were planned by teachers and administrators sensitive to equity issues. The Tin Can Bay program had a gender equity component. Cumulative disadvantages of poverty and disability featured in the Monkland program whereas rural isolation was a major consideration at Imbil. At Bundaberg the students looked at forging closer links with older community members and valued the contribution made by members of other cultures.

In each case care was taken to ensure that outcomes for children affected by poverty were enhanced by involving them in quality programs rather than ‘compensating’ their lower rates of home computer ownership by merely boosting the school’s hardware.

SPPS schools could benefit by a greater degree of communication and sharing of ideas. Sharing good practice has become a major objective of the SPSS State Panel and the Regional Reference Group. This booklet aims at assisting in the dissemination of examples of successful practice. Each of these studies exemplify effective use of SPSS funds. Technology offers the means to communicate examples of good practice at a faster and more efficient rate than ever before. In rural areas the use of on-line services have been hampered by high costs needed for service providers and STD rates. With the development of Education Network Australia and the lowering of costs, SPSS schools have the opportunity to set up an SPSS component where schools could contribute to a database and on-line help service. Sharing and communication could escalate and lead to greater opportunities and better outcomes for students.

Appendix 1 - What is SPSS?

This booklet is primarily designed to be used by schools involved in the Special Programs School Scheme. These schools have extensive literature about how this program came about and the objectives of the program. They also need to demonstrate an understanding of the objectives and philosophy of the program to gain access to annual funding. This section is designed to enhance the understanding of the scheme for readers of this booklet who may be outside the special programs scheme net.

The Program

The National Equity Program for Schools (NEPS) has a Disadvantaged Schools Component (DSC) known in Queensland as Special Programs School Scheme (SPSS). This program is designed to assist those schools with the greatest degree of socio-economic disadvantage. It has its roots in the Karmel Report’s Interim Committee (1973) recommendations that some schools require a greater share of funding for resources to be effective. This recommendation became legislation in Stated Grants (Schools ) Act, 1973. Several programs were designed to meet various needs, one of which was the Disadvantaged Schools Program. The original committee found that schools often had below average educational outcomes if the parent body had a high number of low income earners; a high proportion of non-English speaking migrant parents; many students of aboriginal descent; high staff turn-overs or were in geographical or culturally isolated areas. Some schemes were set up to help assist with problems of isolation or special cultural needs whereas the primary objective of SPSS is to assist schools where many people are locked into a cycle of poverty and poor academic achievement. Schools are chosen by combining census data with a formula to determine a statistical level of socio-economic disadvantage. Factors considered in the formula include :- occupation, unemployment, education, income, accommodation, crowding, family structure and cultural background. Schools with the highest concentrations of socio-economic disadvantage are declared eligible to participate in the scheme. Research is undertaken regularly at a state level to validate the methods used and to check reliability. Flexibility of 10% is given to the Regional Reference Group to include some schools affected by a proven anomaly in the data collection. The Regional Reference Group is a representative body made up of community members, administrators, educational advisers and teachers. This group assists schools and school community groups to improve the educational participation, learning outcomes and personal development of students disadvantaged by socio-economic circumstances.

How Funding is Allocated

Each year, schools submit an annual plan showing programs, expected outcomes and how the program objectives link with removing barriers imposed by socio-economic disadvantage. These programs also need to be linked to the schools overall development plan. Funding is allocated according to need and the likely effectiveness of the program rather than on a nominal per capita basis. This means of funding is mandated by the Commonwealth guidelines on the allocation of these funds and is determined by the Regional Reference Group after referring to school submissions. Funds are not automatically allocated to declared schools each calendar year as submissions need to reflect the aims of the scheme before any funding can be allocated.

What is the funding used for?

Projects are funded for individual schools or clusters of schools when the program is deemed to include successful strategies for improving the educational outcomes of students affected by poverty. Preference is given to programs which are likely to lead to whole school change and that include monitoring components such as action research. Commonwealth guidelines state that priority areas for development are literacy and numeracy, so it is expected that many programs will include components to improve either or both of these areas. Schools often use funds to facilitate teacher profession development or to achieve a greater level of community participation in the school. The Wide Bay Reference Group values the inclusion of some or all of these features when planning programs. These features were used as guidelines when considering what constitutes good practice.:-

"

valuing the change process

professional development of teachers to become socially critical and to challenge inequity

commitment to addressing barriers

initiative and enterprise

cooperation, democratic process, and active and informed citizenship

the inclusion and recognition of, and respect for the variety and uniqueness of the different cultural groups

partnership between school, home and community

valuing of parent involvement

accountability for use of resources

logical, critical and reflective thinking

intuition and creativity

a variety of ways of knowing and of learning

the intrinsic worth of students is seen and felt to be valued

success for all students and school activities is a declared aim for all

differential resourcing is evident in meeting particular needs"

(Wide Bay Special Programs School Scheme Frame of Reference, 1995)

Current Priorities of the Program

The 1995 Wide Bay SPSS Annual Operation Plan for 1995-6 states that a high priority is the documentation, evaluation and dissemination of examples of good practice. This practice is to be identified and promoted in SPSS schools. This project seeks to assist in the success of this important priority. Other stated priority areas include :- planning and implementing re-designed school practices and curricula to increase the self-confidence of students affected by low socio-economic circumstances, to provide professional development for teachers and community members, to develop stronger links between SPSS schools, to ensure effective regional program administration and delivery and to have SPSS more readily identified as an important part of the overall social justice strategy.

Anderson, N., ‘Inclusive Education: Using Technology to Provide Higher Cognitive Challenges’ Australian Disability Review Vol. 2 , 1995

Anderson, N., ‘Beyond Drill and Practice - Higher Order Thinking Skills Through Technology’ Proceedings of the Second Australian Conference on Technology for People With Disabilities. Adelaide, 1995

Anderson, N., ‘No, Belinda Set Everything Up ...’ Journal of the Queensland Society for Information Technology in Education (54), 1995

Apple, M., ‘The New Technology: Part of the Solution or Part of the Problem’ Curriculum Development Centre, 1987

Becker, H. & Sterling, C., ‘Equity in School Computer Use: National Data and Neglected Considerations Journal of Educational Computing Research , Vol.3 (3), 1987

Bigum, C., ‘The Internet: More Questions Than Answers For Schools’ The Professional Reading Guide for Educational Administrators, Vol 16 (4) ,1995

Campbell, N., ‘Computer Anxiety of Rural, Middle and Secondary Students’ Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol. 5 (2) ,1989

Chambers, S. & Clarke, V., ‘Is Inequity Cumulative? The Relationship Between Disadvantaged Group Membership and Students’ Computing Experience, Knowledge, Attitudes and Intentions’ Journal of Educational Computing Research , Vol.3(4) 1987

Connell, R. & White, V. & Johnston, K., Editors ‘Running Twice as Hard - The Disadvantaged Schools Program in Australia’ Deakin University Press, 1991

Connell, R. & Ashenden, D. & Kessler, G. & Dowsett, G. ‘Making The Difference’ George Allen & Unwin , 1984

Connel, R., ‘Schools and Social Justice’ La Maitresse d’ecole ,1993

Duncan, G. & Brooks-Gunn, J. & Klebanov, P. ‘Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development’ Columbia University, 1992

Gerber, B. Beyond Drill and Practice- Using the Computer for Creative Decision Making. Preventing School Failure Vol 38 (2) 25-30, 1994

Groundwater-Smith, S. ‘Technology: Skills and Understandings for Students in DSP Schools’ School of Teaching and Curriculum Studies, University of Sydney, 1991

Harrington, H. ‘The Essence of Technology and the Education of Teachers’ Journal of Teacher Education Vol. 44 (1), 1993

Hayward, S. Microcomputer Software - Teaching Children to Animate. British Journal of Special Education Vol 17 (1) 15-16, 1990

Hickling-Hudson, A., ‘Rich Schools, poor schools, boys and girls: computer education in Australian secondary schools’ Journal of Education Policy, Vol.7(1), 1992

Jones, B. ‘Technology and the Future of Work: Sleepers Awake!’ Oxford University Press, 1990

Keating, P. ‘Challenging the Divide: Equity in the Age of Efficiency’ Paper presented at the ACOSS National Congress Conference, Brisbane, 1994

Kenway, J. ‘Reality Bytes: Education, Markets and the Information Superhighway’ The Australian Education Researcher Vol 22. (1), 1995

King, J. & Wilson, E. ‘Professional Development for Effective Learning and Teaching in Far North Queensland’ Australian Educational Computing Vol 10, (2), 1995

King, R., ‘Rethinking Equity in Computer Access and Use’ Educational Technology, April, 1987

Lepper, M & Gurner, J. Children and Computers-Approaching the Twenty-First Century. American Pschologist, Feb,170-178, 1989

Marginson, S., ‘The Economy and School Policy’ Paper presented to school principals 1995

Means, B. & Knapp, M. Cognitive Approaches to Teaching Advanced Skills to Educationally Disadvantaged Students. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol 73 (4) 282-289 1991

Mevarech, Z. & Silber, O. & Fine, D., ‘Learning with Computers in small groups: Cognitive and Affective Outcomes’ Journal of Educational Computing Research , Vol.7(2) 1991

Neuman, D. ‘Technology and Equity’ Eric Digest, 1991

Raskind, M. & Higgins, K. ‘Reflections on Ethics, Technology, and Learning Disabilities: Avoiding the Consequences of Ill-Considered Action’ Journal of Learning Disabilities Vol. 28 (7), 1995

Ridgway, J. & Passey, D. ‘A Constructivist Approach to Educational Computing’ Australian Educational Computing Sept 1991

Sachs, J. ‘Computer Education in Australia: What is the Direction of Policy?’ Unicorn Vol 19 (1), 1993

Smillie, I. ‘Mastering the Machine: Poverty, Aid and Technology’ Westview Press, Oxford, 1993

Snyder, I. ‘Writing with Computers in the Classroom’ Unicorn Vol. 19 (1), 1993

Sutton, R., ‘Equity and Computers in the Schools: A Decade of Research’ Review of Educational Research Vol.61 (4) ,1991

Van Horn, R., ‘Surfing the Internet’ Score Vol 3 (4) 1995

Wirth, A., ‘Education and Work: The Choices We Face’ Phi Delta Kappan Vol.74 (5) 1995

Appendix 2 - Scope and Sequence Chart

Technology activities should be based on students’ needs and interests and should be perceived by the students and teachers as being relevant. The following scope and sequence chart written by Eric King, Neil Anderson and Sandy Bourke is not designed to provide a recipe for skill based activities but so that teachers can check their programs to ascertain whether a good range of skills are covered in the cross-curricular activities. Some activities can be modified to ensure that students gain experience in a wide range of skills. The chart may also be useful as a checklist for the term’s activities.